Reconstructive memory refers to the process of assembling information from stored knowledge when there is no clear memory of an event. Reconstructive memory states that memory is not an entirely accurate and complete reproduction of events but rather a construction. We recall the outline of an event and fill in the gaps using expected information. This could be from schemas or leading questions. Leading questions are questions that have a desired answer, how the question is asked can affect how we recall an event. Schemas are culturally specific mental representations formed from past events. In this essay, I will give a brief account of reconstructive memory and the supporting study of Loftus and Palmer.
Loftus and Palmer's research aimed to investigate whether the use of leading questions would affect an eyewitness’s estimation of speed. To investigate they used a lab experiment consisting of 45 students who were divided into five groups of nine. Short films of traffic accidents were shown to each student, after which they were asked to give an account of the accident they had seen and they answered a questionnaire with different questions about the accident. There was onecritical question which was asked to each student. The questions were the same except they included different verbs. Nine participants were asked how fast they were going when the cars hit each other. The critical verb hit was replaced by collidided, bumped, smashed or contacted in the other conditions with each having nine students answering the question. The mean estimates of speed were highest in the smashed conditions (40.8 mph) and the lowest in the contacted group (31.8mph). The results showed that the more intense the verb that is used, the higher the average estimate.
Loftus and Palmer demonstrate the use of leading questions on reconstructive memory. This can be seen as participants are given 1 critical question that includes different verbs. This is important as the only difference between the questions was the verbs used, such as hit and smash, as both verbs have different levels of aggression associated with them, when questions with the different verbs the results would show different estimations of speed. This shows that memories are not reproductions of an event but instead reconstructions. Therefore memory is reconstructive.
Thinking is the process of using knowledge and information to make plans, interpret the world, and make decisions about the world in general. Decision-making is the process of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values and preferences of the decision-maker. Cognitive biases are illogical systematic errors that negatively affect decision-making. This essay will look at Confirmation bias a type of bias that involves favouring information that confirms your previously existing beliefs or biases, it can affect not only how we gather information, but also how we interpret and recall information. For example, people who support or oppose a particular issue will not only find information to support it but also interpret news stories in a way that upholds their existing ideas. They will also remember the details in a way that reinforces these attitudes. In this essay I will provide a detailed explanation of the effect of cognitive biases, using the supporting studies of Ask and Granhag,
Ask and Granhag aimed to investigate the effects of confirmation bias. To investigate they used a lab experiment consisting of 50 criminal investigators and 68 undergraduate students who would read a set of facts from the preliminary investigation of a homicide. All participants were given short background information explaining that a female psychiatrist was found dead in her apartment and that a second woman was found inside the apartment The second woman was established as the prime suspect. They were then given 1 of 2 conditions, the suspect motive condition or the alternative culprit condition. All participants were then given the same 20-item list of observations made in the preliminary investigation of the murder. An example of one of the observations on the list was the prime suspect's fingerprints were found on the murder weapon. The results showed that the students displayed confirmation bias and ascribed guilt to the e prime suspect only when a potential motive was preserved. They chose the alternative culprit when told about him despite all the evidence suggesting it was the prime suspect. Investigators were not as influenced by the initial hypothesis and ascribed guilt to the prime suspect regardless of the hypothesis, thus being less sensitive to interpretations.
Ask and Granhag demonstrate the effects of confirmation bias. For example, students given an initial hypothesis with a suspect motive were more likely to say the suspect was guilty. This is important as participants have interpreted the information (20-item list of observations) to verify their existing beliefs (initial hypothesis) and this influenced their decision on who was guilty. Although it must be noted this didn't affect the police investigators which shows that confirmation bias can be mitigated with training. Therefore, this study supports the existence of confirmation bias.
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